Multiculturalism is a term that can be used to describe heterogeneous societies with a variety of cultures or a movement that fights for the equal rights of minorities in a hegemonic society. Kuper (1999) argues that its “Common purpose is to replace the ideology of the American melting pot with what is in effect an ideology of anti-assimilation.” From this we can see that Multiculturalism is an issue as it firstly counters the traditional European notion of an assimilationist and hegemonic society. On top of this it promotes equal rights which allows for cultural closure and difference which presents issues of cultural boundaries and rights, national identities and respect for other cultures, (Harrison, 1999). In other words, it results in various contradictions and clashes between different groups and cultures, which bring up these issues. Throughout this blog, I will look into the various issues multiculturalism proposes while paying particular attention to worldwide examples.

One issue multiculturalism presents is that it has opened up space for minorities to claim rights which in turn has resulted in legal pluralism. While this may seem beneficial, it causes issues because it firstly brings issues of cultural and national identity since it can be agreed that when cultural identity becomes the basis for claiming rights, conflict and boundaries may arise. Secondly, it can be seen as an issue as governments and organizations may turn these rights into policies, which can cause issue of authority such as who has the authority to decide upon an identity of a culture. Looking at examples of indigenous and native cultures illustrate my point as many indigenous cultures like to claim rights, such as ownership of land, due to ethnic descent. For example in Canada, issues and policies regarding rights to land and resources for the Inuit people has caused issues within the Canadian government and Inuit culture as well as between various Inuit organizations. Wilmsen argues this by stating, “Land claims on behalf of former nomads typically raise very tricky issues.” Wilmsen (1989). In Canada, the government implemented policies of sedentarization in the 1950s, which negatively impacted the hunting culture that had been part of the Inuit culture for so long since they see it as anachronistic and objectionable, Nuttal (1998).

However in the 1970s acts such as the 1971 Alaska Native Claims Act, granted rights for Native controlled profit making corporations, which gave back Inuit’s rights to their hunting culture. This firstly brings issues within the Canadian government as they have difficulties establishing land boundaries, how the Inuit understood rights to resources and, land and wether Inuit chiefs were included in treaties, which alienated some or part of their land. Brody argues that in “Any hunter gatherer society or, indeed, any oral cultures, words spoken by chiefs are a natural and inevitable basis for truth.” Brody (2001:207). In Canada, some natives claimed to have chiefs while others were not recognized before the established policies of the cultural authorities. This causes issues of authority. On top of this, it caused issues and disputes within the Inuit culture such as the disputes between the Inuit organizations Innu Nation and the Labrador Inuit Association over the use of resources and land claims, Kuper (2003). From this we can see that the Inuits have a common culture but not a common identity, which is why I believe that multiculturalism is an issue based on claiming rights and identities, that results in multiculturalism policies, which benefit and give rights to specific cultures at the expense of fuelling debate amongst different cultures and groups.

Looking further into multiculturalism policies, which have been implemented by various organizations, brings up another issue of multiculturalism. The issue it brings is that these policies can undermine the coherence of a society, which in turn creates issues of difference. In other words, they can contradict the original policies, which aim to bound and strengthen the relationships between the various cultures within a society by weakening the unity of the whole society in the process. An example of this can be seen within the Muslim population of Britain where the multiculturalism policies, designed to provide cultural freedom within Britain had failed and resulted in minorities, such as the Muslim population to form exclusivist identities since their community became entrenched. Poulter, argues this by claiming the “It is inevitable that British Muslims will have to accept that Islam can only be followed as a religious faith and pursued as an all embracing way of life.” Poulter (1998). This can be seen through the rise of single-faith schools and educational segregation in Britain, Kolig (2006). The consequences of this is shown in the London Bombings, which took place in July 2005, where young British Mulsims, who were raised in Britain believed that Muslim identity and loyalty came before citizenship. David Blunkett illustrated this situation when he stated in a commission report in 2001 that “British multiculturalism, and its best intentions of providing a maximum of freedom of cultural choice, and of identity production had failed.” Kolig (2006).

Another example can be seen in Norway where the Norwegian Government disregarded policies advocating the rights for a Norwegian citizen in favor of cultural correctness and freedom, Unni Wikan (2002). This did not prove to be the case as one Moroccan girl living in Norway was forced to be shipped off to Morocco by her father in order to marry an older man. Since the Norwegian government failed to protect her rights based on immigrant descent, it can be seen as a multicultural policy contradicting itself and causing issues. Both the British Muslim and Norwegian examples illustrate that incompatible values can endanger the human rights and civil liberties that existed from the very beginning. In my opinion, I believe that multiculturalism policies, which have the possibility to weaken the coherence of a society, are an issue of multiculturalism because they can alienate and separate minority cultures from the dominant ones which in turn create a negative image for the minority. On top of this, its can create issues within the nation as they can sometimes repeal these policies, which in turn effects the human rights of some which was seen in the Norwegian example.  Friedman sums this up by stating, “An increased momentum towards homogenization is offset by an inner ideological weakening of the global hegemon.” Friedman (1994).

Multiculturalism and its movement and policies can also present issues about the construction or reconstruction of cultural traditions in order to create boundaries for cultural identity. Hanson states that “The issue of the construction of cultural traditions has been a contentious one and being too openly analytical has on occasions run into strong taboos.” Hanson (1989). It is seen as an issue as it presents a debate on continuity versus discontinuity within members of that ethnicity or culture. An example of this would be in the Maori culture of New Zealand where there is fuelled debate between about the reconstruction of Maori culture so that it can either continue or discontinue traditional Maori traditions. Tremewan asserts this by stating that this debate gives way to “vigorous polemic.” Tremewan (2005). One Maori tradition that is a cultural reconstruction aiming to create boundary markers of a Maori identity is the process of retribalisation within Maori Society. Its intentions are to restore old polices that have died within Maori society and to provide a marker to symbolize Maoriness. It can be seen to be a reconstruction of an old Maori tradition as it includes an exclusive and non-exclusive, aspect.

It is seen as an issue because only Maori who can provide evidence of Maori connection can be part of the exclusive circle and claim rights to Maoriness. It is so exclusivists that even people who are ethnically Maori that can’t provide link themselves with a traditional Maori tribe. Another boundary marker that Maoris have reconstructed is their traditional world view of “Matauranga”which incorporates a separate education system, known as “Kaupapa Maori,” Rata (2004). It is clearly separate from the rationalist Pakeha view of the world as looks at its view are based on spiritual rather than rational reasons. According to Kolig, supporting this worldview through the education and legal system, “Would not only contravene the secularist education agenda because of Mautaurangas religious connotations, but flies in the face of the governments declarations of the nations secularist character.” Kolig (2004b). To further illustrate this issue, the Treaty of Waitangi has an official Maori version that declares that Maori spirituality is entitled official recognition in public disclosure if it is a ‘Taonga’ treasure. In my own opinion, the reconstruction of traditional and indigenous cultures as a form of multiculturalism, in response to assimilate policies brings issues because firstly, it brings upon heated debate within the culture about what parts are to be reconstructed and how they should be, and secondly, the reconstruction can collide with parts of the dominant culture as is the case with Matauranga.

Since I have so far only looked at multiculturalism movements and policies which are legislations put together by authoritarian organizations such as the government, I will now look at multiculturalism movements and policies which have been put collectively put into place by the minority cultures themselves. From the neutral point of view, these practices may seem positive as it shows that the minorities are standing up for their rights and resisting assimilation into the dominant culture, which is totally different from theirs. However, I believe that these practices are more consequential than beneficial because they restrict the liberties of others.

To illustrate my point I will look at Muslim populations in Europe. Roy argues that “World wide, a conspicuous strengthening of the Islamic identity has been observed which is predominantly interpreted as a backlash against cultural globalization.” Roy (2004) This can be agreed upon because the Islamic religion is a religion which also encompasses daily practices to demonstrate devotion in social conduct, which cannot be integrated into the Western Social Life as seen in my Britain Example earlier. Muslim movements in France such as the formation of the Beur (Arab) culture show this. The Beur culture in France is a culture which largely consists of Second immigrant Muslim youth who want to show a sense of muslimness but at the same time break down cultural barriers that separate them from the dominant culture through acts such as drinking alcohol, which is prohibited in the Muslim religion. However, young French women within this culture still wear the traditional female head covering ‘Hijab’ and since Roy argues that “The Muslim female head covering Hijab has recently come to serve Muslim women as a flamboyant expression of opposition to assimilationist pressures, a gesture of defiance, refusal and even provocation.” Roy (1994, p.65). A study conducted by Kolig (2006) in 1990 on Muslim youth in Austria further shows this. During his study, Kolig was surprised to find that most Muslim youth identify themselves as primarily Muslim since there is a fair amount of racial discrimination in Austrian society. What Holig discovered was that this identification was a resistance towards peer pressure, which can be seen as a form of resistance towards the dominant culture. Both these examples illustrate my point as these practices can restrict the liberty of others since their exclusivist nature means that there religio-cultural identities cannot easily merge together, which means that they do not have the full liberty to pursue an favorable or “hybrid” identity.

The main argument of my blog is this. Multiculturalism is an issue because it incorporates policies and practices, weather they are legal or collective, in order for minorities to claim rights, which in turn brings up issues of identity politics, cultural boundaries and difference, which can spark debate about respect for other cultures, which is based upon political correctness, when the policies are connected to the government and cultural correctness within the culture itself. In the most extreme cases this can result in the likes of racism. All my examples illustrate that multiculturalism is an issue revolving around liberty, national identity and difference, which is marked by cultural boundaries created through multiculturalism.